We have already seen
one way in which discussion can be
foreshortened. Particular interpretations
are claim to be personal and authentic, so that
any attempt to disagree with them can then be read
as a personal attack, or a doubt about someone's
authenticity. This view is sometimes
supported by a particular pragmatic or 'toolbox'
reading, given much support by Massumi in his Translator's
Foreword to ATP:
Deleuze's own image
for a concept is not a brick, but a
"toolbox". He calls his kind of philosophy
"pragmatics" because its goal is the invention
of concepts that do not add up to a system of
belief… [Which]… pack a potential in
the way a crowbar in a willing hand envelops in
energy of prying... The question is not:
is it true? But: does it work? What
new thought does it make possible to
think? What new emotions does it make it
possible to feel? What's new sensations
and perceptions does it open in the body?
(xv).
Deleuze uses the term "toolbox" in his dialogue
with Foucault, Intellectuals
and Power. The
context might be important to understand what the
concepts as tools might be aimed at actually
doing. Deleuze and Foucault are discussing
revolutionary theory and politics and their
connection, and the issue is how concepts might go
over into political practice. Foucault says
that the role of his theory is not to awaken
consciousness, but 'to sap power, to take
power… A "theory" is the regional system of
[political] struggle'. It is this remark
that actually produces Deleuze on the toolbox in
response. The term 'tool' means that theory cannot
be subordinated to some master signifier (like
those found in Marxism). In a remark which
relates to the pragmatic reading below, he cites
Proust as saying that readers should treat his
book as a pair of glasses, and 'if they don't suit
you find another player; I leave it to you to find
your own instrument'. However, the sentence
concludes by saying that this instrument 'is
necessarily an investment for combat'. He
goes on to say that we should not see theory as a
new total explanation directly guiding political
struggle, but rather that theory can be subversive
if it multiplies and 'can erupt in a totally
different area'. This helps in particular to
oppose the capitalist project to unify the 'forms
of repression': this includes enrolling
professionals 'to exercise functions that have
traditionally belonged to the police'. Some
examples of Foucault's concepts being used in
practice are discussed, such as those involved in
the formation of the Prisoners Information Group
which lobbied for prisoner rights. Deleuze
can actually offer fewer specific examples,
although he supports the politics of
'groupuscules', each of which would be agitating
for greater freedom. Children are mentioned
several times as potential
groupuscules. While we are here the
sort of politics D&G were interested in is
also hinted at in ATP, rather obscurely,
in a footnote at the end of
Chapter 13
Massumi (1992) goes on to add: ‘A
concept is a brick. It can be used to build
the courthouse of reason. Or it can be
thrown through the window.’ (5). However, it seems
a Deleuzian would then philosophise about this act
as follows: ‘What is the subject of the
brick? The arm that throws it? The
body connected to the arm? The brain…
The situation that brought the brain and body to
such a juncture? All and none of the above.
What is its object? The window?
Edifice? The laws the edifice
shelters? The class and other power
relations encrusted in the laws? All and
none of the above’.
Discussing these statements, if we stop with the
first sentence of Massumi's Foreword,
we can get the impression that literally anything
goes, any project can be pursued, any kind of
reading of D&G is permitted, that only the
reader can decide if it 'works'. There
is already a qualification following on soon
afterwards,though, in that we are supposed to
think new thoughts and feel new emotions,
encounter new sensations and perceptions.
Quite a lot might turn on what is meant by this
term 'new'. If it means anything that does not
reproduce conventional thought, we have quite a
serious restriction on what we can use the toolbox
for: we are not permitted to use it to prop up
thoughts, emotions, sensations and perceptions
that have already been thoroughly criticized by
Deleuze and Guattari. Who would expect
anything else -- that we can ignore the work and
blithely think our own thoughts? The extract
from Massumi's book also rapidly goes on to
suggest rather definite directions about what
should happen once we have used the concept is a
brick - we have to philosophize, and,
specifically, to ask deleuzian questions. It
could be argued that that is always the outcome of
D&G's provocations - to make us philosophize
in the directions they have already sketched. Deleuze
describes his own personally costly
philosophical path away from conventional
thinking in chapter three of Deleuze (2004)...
it is hardly credible that he would want someone
to use his concepts to return to and strengthen
that same conventional thinking, that he would
accept that as a legitimate use of these
concepts so that all his scholarship and
isolation would be in vain.
Pragmatic readings
The same might be said for a 'pragmatic
approach', which you can sometimes see discussed
If people think that this means a common
sense approach, or one that is guided by
professional or lay opinions, perceptions and
ethics, they might be surprised to read that
Deleuze, and Deleuze and Guattari, have serious
criticisms about 'common sense' and the slightly
more formalized 'good sense' of scientists or
professionals (especially in Deleuze 1990). Chaos
is threatening to us, and the normal way is to
stick to fixed opinions, joined by flimsy
‘protective rules—resemblance, contiguity,
causality’ (D&G 1994:201).
However, ‘the misfortune of people comes
from opinion’ (206).
More directly, D&G use the term
'pragmatic' in specific contexts, even in
ATP. We find a technical use for the term in
the discussion of linguistic systems, for example:
'There is no language in itself' [that is, no
abstract model existing independently of pragmatic
uses of language, enunciations]. We're also
told that 'There exist tree or root structures in
rhizomes; conversely, a tree branch or root
division may begin to burgeon into a
rhizome. The coordinates are determined not
by theoretical analyses implying universals but by
a pragmatics composing multiplicities or aggregate
of intensities' (16). Later, 'RHIZOMATICS =
SCHIZOANALYSIS= STRATOANALYSIS=
PRAGMATICS=MICROPOLITICS' (24). Again, this
is clearly not a licence for us to use any concept
from any systems that occur to us, and combine
them with concepts from D and G to build some
structure of our own; deleuzian pragmatics is
clearly linked to the other terms in the
equation,and to philosophical argument opposing
the grand theories.
Philosophy has certainly had
lots of rivals, especially sociology, but this
arises from the false pursuit of universals,
which clearly run the risk of being turned
into the world views of different people.Psychoanalysis
was another rival.Finally,
among the other ‘insolent and calamitous
rivals’ came computer science marketing and
other ‘disciplines of communication’, all
claiming to be able to invent concepts and
have ideas (D&G
1994: 10).
Take it or leave it readings
There is also a quote from Deleuze (1990) himself
in response that can be seen as expressing
indifference towards how his work is read --
his reply 'to a harsh critic'. This
particular response is cited in an article by St
Pierre to justify personal and relativist
readings, and that quote occurred in Rhizo15.
Context seems important again here. The quote is
preceded by arguing that the critic is suffering
from ressentiment when accusing Deleuze of
aspiring to be an academic celebrity, with Anti
Oedipus. The critic is accused
in turn of being a typical carping left winger,
always accusing people. Then the famous quote
There are, you see,
two ways of reading a book: you either see it as
a box with something inside and start looking
for what it signifies, and then if you’re even
more perverse or depraved you set off after
signifiers [ that is, try to explain the book in
terms of some privileged language like marxism]
...And you annotate and interpret and question
and write a book about the book [like the critic
did] ... Or there’s another way: you see the
book as a little non signifying machine [ that
is, read it in its own terms], and the only
question is “Does it work, and how does it
work?” How does it work for you? If it
doesn’t work, if nothing comes through, you try
another book’ (8).
I think the context here
suggests that Deleuze is dismissing criticism in a
rather off-hand but strangely hurt manner (he also
seems to have been upset about some remarks by the
critic about his long fingernails). He is claiming
to have written something really original that
cannot be transcribed into any other
approach. And, basically, he is saying -- if
you don't like it, do one, mate. This fits with
his view that discussion with others is tiresome
(discussed later) .
Fascist or liberal readings
Deleuze and Guattari are clearly not prepared to
admit that any sort of reading can be made from
their work. They would not be at all happy
with a fascist reading, for example. We can cite
Foucault's introduction to AntiOedipus
(AO) here in support of ruling out
such a reading: D&G are pursuing a
particular style deliberately to rule out being
dealt with in the usual academic way, being
summarized, digested, turned into bullet points
and so on. Calling this a 'fascist' approach is
a bit strong, but the accusation from the harsh
critic that D&G would become a
philosophical school, to be processed by an HEI
clearly worried our hero. This worry would
clearly follow from all the material D&G
write, opposing the tendency for strata to form
in assemblages, for striations to start dividing
up smooth spaces, for the state to 'capture'
various kinds of thought systems and so
on. Deleuze knows full well that the
school system is becoming dominated by business
and that we are heading towards a new form of
societal control. It would probably take a
Baudrillard, however, to follow that implication
and argue that the education system can offer at
best a simulacrum of Deleuze and Guattari.
Finally, in an interview with Guattari by Stivale
in 1985, the following exchange took place:
Stivale: ...schizoanalysis is a thought without any ideological specificity, if you will; that is, either the left
or the right can make use of it. It's this question of the tool box: a little earlier, when I questioned you about the use of
schizoanalysis, you said, yes, in the end, I continue to work, and what people do with schizoanalysis doesn't interest me,
they can take it or leave it, but I'm busy with our work. That's all well and good, but here is French neo-liberalism, a rightist
intellectual using it [he shows Guattari an article]. Still again, that may not matter at all to you...
Guattari: Oh, not at all because what does it mean to attach a name like that, to hook our names onto it as a reference? Is it true, does
it correspond to anything?...on the level of thought, it's not at all clear. Let's take a very simple example, the example of schools: I'm for free
schools, not free schools run by priests, but I'm for the liberation of schools, I'm in favor of dismantling national education, etc. So, is this a theme of the right or the left?
What we seem to have here is, first, surprise
that liberals would want to read the work, then
disbelief that anyone could think D&G were
liberals, then lofty indifference, then an
account of how conventional categories get it
wrong and will never be able to label D&G
adequately. There is no support for a liberal
reading.
However, I have recently come across an
interesting argument by Dyal
that D&G do share a lot with New Right
readings nonetheless, especially in their
critique of Enlightnment thinking and modernity.
You can't keep a good right-wing reading down!
Selective readings
I think this sort of remark also illustrates the
difficulties of another popular reading of
Deleuze and Guattari, which is to extract a
sentence or two to admire. This is quite
understandable as a reaction from busy people
who do not have the interest or the stamina to
penetrate the bizarre language of our heroes,
especially if they are professionally obliged to
get something out of it all. Again this
figured in Rhizo 15 from a participant who
argued that we did not have to simply opt for or
against Deleuze and Guattari, but could like
some aspects of their work, maybe even one
sentence. We might be able to assume
from this that Deleuze and Guattari would also
resist being summarized in the form of a few
quotes which then lead on to more conventional
analyses. The dangers of isolating particular
sentences for comment is discussed in the section
below.
One problem for me is that D and D&G do
actually say things that do not fit together, so
selectively quoting can give a misleading
impression . One thing I noticed while reading
through was the constant vacillation about
political action, for example. D and D&G are
alternately pessimistic and optimistic about the
chances of breaking capitalism. The chapters in ATP
show this well -- we are urged to
deterritorialize, explore lines of flight, become
nomads and other things -- and then promptly
warned of the terrible dangers if we do
(alcoholism, drug dependency, insanity, isolation,
subjective black holes and so on. Chapter 13 offers a
variant in that most of it is thoroughly
pessimistic about how capitalism and its State
capture almost every creative alternative -- but
then we are urged to fight nonetheless. You could
selectively quote to support either cultural
revolution or cultural conservatism.
Perhaps the most relevant issue is what they say
about childhood, however. Some quotes seem to
support the notion of the child as a naturally
creative person, cruelly repressed by
psychoanalysts, educators or the State. Little
Hans, a lad who was diagnosed indirectly by Freud
and his father constantly appears as a hero
cruelly forced back into the terms of
psychoanalysis and the Oedipus complex. The same
goes for Little Richard, Klein's patient. It
should be said immediately that D&G have only
the records of Freud and Klein to go on. In
Freud's case, these are notes based on what Han's
father told him -- notes on notes. D&G add
notes to those notes, but you would never think so
from the confident tone of their discussion:
In ATP Chapter 1,
we find, for example:
Look at what happened to
Little Hans already, an example of child
psychoanalysis at its purest: they kept on
BREAKING HIS RHIZOME and BLOTCHING HIS
MAP....In the case of Little Hans,studying
the unconscious would be to show how he
tries to build a rhizome, with the family
house but also with the line of flight of
the building, the street, etc., how these
lines are blocked, how the child is made
to take root in the family...how then
Professor Freud's intervention assures a
power takeover by the signifier, a
subjectification of affects; how the only
escape route left to the child is ... a
becoming-animal [but this is] perceived as
shameful and guilty (the becoming-horse of
Little Hans, truly a political option)’
(16).
..
look what Melanie Klein did to Little
Richard's geopolitical maps: she
developed photos from them, made
tracings of them...one way or the other
your rhizome will be broken
Later,
our heroes ask...'whether
Little Hans can endow his own elements
with the relations of movement and
rest, the affects, that would make it
become horse, forms and subjects aside.Is
there an as yet unknown assemblage that
would be neither Hans’ nor the horse’s but
that of the becoming–horse for Hans? An
assemblage, for example, in which the horse
would bare its teeth and Hans might show
something else, his feet, his legs, his
peepee maker, whatever? And in what way
would that ameliorate Hans’ problem, to what
extent would it open a way out that had been
previously blocked?...When Hans talks about
a "pee-pee maker" he is referring not to an
organ or anorganic function but basically to
a material.(284--5)
In Deleuze
(1997): Chapter 9 is on
children and what they say, and again, Little
Hans and Little Richard are the only
examples. These kids are forced to speak
for children in general. D&G criticize Freud
and Klein for making them into puppets
expressing their own hang-ups, but D&G do
exactly the same thing. Instead of being victims
of Oedipal structures, they are now permitted a
stage only as spokespersons for rhizomatic
mapping and becoming.
Childish gestures
and play can extricate kids from tracings,
like that 'dominant competence of the
teacher's language - a microscopic event
upsets the local balance of power'.(17)
‘Of course, the
child, the woman, the black have
memories; but the Memory that collects
those memories is still a virile
majoritarian agency treating them as
“childhood memories”, as conjugal or
colonial memories.’ (323)
'the
trace of creation in the created',
immanent movement to explain the
different aspects apparent in the
world. This requires a
'childish' approach ( 372)
We reproduce
microfascism, for example when 'the
mother feels obliged to titillate to a
child, the father becomes a mommy'
(252) [a warning against the dangers
of 'supples egmentation']
'the
modern valorization of children's
drawings, texts by the mad, and
concerts of noise'. They can
be overdone and we end up
'reproducing nothing but a scribble
effacing all lines, a scramble
effacing all sounds', and this can
prevent 'any event from
happening. All one has left is
a resonance chamber well on the way
to forming a black hole...'People
often have too much of a tendency
to reterritorialize on the child,
the mad, noise'. ...'Sobriety,
sobriety: that is the common
prerequisite for the
deterritorialization of
matters, the molecularization
of material, and the
cosmicization of forces.
Maybe a child can do
that. But the sobriety
involved is the sobriety of a
becoming - child, that is not
necessarily the becoming of
the child, quite the contrary'
(380), ...For there is no
imagination outside of
technique. The modern
figure is not the child or the
lunatic, still less the
artist, but the cosmic
artisan' (381). Nevertheless,
by page 386, 'the
child has wings already, he
becomes celestial' .
Some of these points will occur again when we
discuss creativity in a later section
While we are here, try these:
‘A child never confines
himself to playing house, to playing only at
being daddy-and-mommy. He also plays at being
a magician, a cowboy, a cop or a robber, a
train, a little car. The problem has to do not
with the sexual nature of desiring machines,
but with the family nature of this sexuality’
( Deleuze and
Guattari 1984: 46)
'True pedagogical rectification
consists in subordinating human relations to
the relation of human beings to things' —as in
the 'famous rule from Emile which
demands only muscle: Never bring things to the
child, bring the child to the things'.
This will avoid 'the [usual] infantile
situation that gives him a stake in being
mean'. (Deleuze
2004: 55)
‘it is
hardly acceptable…to
run together a child’s nursery rhymes,
poetic experimentations, and experiences of
madness…[And] justify the grotesque trinity
of child, poet, and madmen’ (Deleuze 1990
:82-83.
'we should take
him quite literally when Godard says
children are political prisoners' (Deleuze 1995:
41).
...small children have
singularities without individuality, 'a smile,
a gesture, a funny face' and are 'infused with
an immanent life'.
(Deleuze 2005:
30)
Metaphorical readings
it is common again for people to insist that
D&G's work should not be read in the same way
as normal academic materials, and the Introductory
sections to both AO and ATP make
that clear. Deleuze
1990 is also written unconventionally as a
sequence of 'series' rather than in
chapters, and ATP is written as a series of
plateaus. That whole book is described as a
rhizome: 'We are writing this book as a rhizome',
in a circular form 'but only for laughs'.(ATP cvh
1 24) The style is also called 'delirious' (a
style permitting wanderings and digressions,
'off the point' something like a flow of
consciousnesss) Both D&G clearly wanted
to break away from conventional academic writing,
partly to make their work more popular. They also
cheerfully incorporate all sort of nonacacdemic
(but not exactly popular) writing into their work,
with extensive quotes from Henry Miller, Carlos
Castenada, Antonin Artaud,and even HP Lovecraft I
have suggested that in doing so, they actually
unconsciously reproduced many of the features of a
classic academic habitus described well by
Bourdieu, widely held in French elite academic
circles at the time. I once summarized the
characteristics as:
Academic languages dealt
in a ‘second order language of allusions
and cultural complicities’ (Sociology
Research Group, 1980: 46). This is
seen as ‘second nature to intelligent
and gifted individuals’, leading to
seemingly ‘natural’ divisions among
students. However, ‘academic
judgments…in reality consecrate cultural
privilege’ (Sociology Research Group,
1980: 46). There is, however, ‘a fiction
that there is no misunderstanding’ (Bourdieu,
Passeron and Saint Martin, 1994:
13).... There are also ‘verbal
acrobatics, hermetic allusion,
disconcerting references, or peremptory
obscurity… technical
tricks... such as the concealment
of sources, the insertion of studied
jokes… the avoidance of
compromising formulations [which might
prove to be wrong]’
My
favourite allusion, one that defeated
just about everyone that tried to track
it is this reference to : 'the glimmer
of girls in a monologue by Charlus'( ATP
88) . Like
an idiot, I thought this referred to De
Charlus a major character in Proust, but
no-one could find any reference to glimmering,
and De C wasn't into girls anyway. Latest
thoughts are that Charlus was a French music
hall performer -- so was it worth following the
allusion or not?
This 'allusive' quality, can appear in
forms that look poetic or metaphorical, with
Freud's analyses described as trying to 'project
[Little Hans's efforts] back on to the
family photo', or referring to Kant (or
possibly Spinoza) as the 'Prince
of the North' . There is also, as Foucault
insisted, some humour, and I particularly like the
more scabrous examples : at the end of the section
on despotism and scapegoating in ATP we
find, for example, 'the goat's anus stands
opposite the face of the despot or god' (129).
Other humorous bits are more allusive -- Derrida
in his online lectures
(on You Tube) finds a lot of hilarity in
remarks made about dogs (for example in Ch. 10 of ATP)
which are aimed at Freud and Lacan who owned
dogs. Derrida also says that unless you
understand Schelling, you won’t get the
accompanying remarks about the apparently
untranslateble term la bêtise –
and Schelling isn’t even referenced
anywhere in Thousand Plateaus.
More obvious metaphors actually abound in
D&G of course -- rhizomes, trees, rivers,
geological features, music etc. My favourite
is another scabrous one
-- ‘God is a lobster’
(45). These
examples also show that metaphors often come
after a passage which uses more conventional
language, as a kind of witty summary. However,
there are important reservations about using
metaphor for more serious explanatory
purposes -- it is a flawed philosophical
technique to manage difference (Deleuze 2004),and
instead we need to find (virtual) continuities
beneath (empirical) differences, the proper
relations between heterogeneous objects.
We are also told that some sentences are
definitely not to be read metaphorically.
Taking ATP again:
On the plane of
consistency, semiotic components of
all kinds are found, chemical,
electronic, genetic and so on, and
some systems emerged like wasps and
orchids. We should not consider
these elements as metaphoric, because
'all that consists is Real' (77)
Language
actually moves from one saying to
another. Narrative transmits
'what one has heard, what someone
else said to you. Hearsay'
(85). This means that
indirect discourse is the basis of
language, with metaphors and
metonyms as mere effects,
presupposing indirect discourse.
Interpretance
(a technique to extend
dominant codings) is the
corresponding apparatus of
making sense in the
paradigmatic dimension,
working with leaps across
systems of meaning in the form
of metaphor, for example (127)
.
Above all, in the key
chapter on becoming (Chapter 10):
Scherer
and Hocquenghem made
this essential point
in their
reconsideration of the
problem of
wolf-children. Of
course, it is not a
question of a real
production, as if the
child "really" became
an animal; nor is it a
question of a
resemblance, as if the
child imitated animals
that really raised it;
nor is it a question
of a symbolic
metaphor, as if the
autistic child that
was abandoned or lost
merely became the
"analogue" of an
animal. Scherer and
Hocquenghem are right
to expose this false
reasoning, which is
based on a culturalism
or moralism upholding
the irreducibility of
the human order:
Because the child has
not been transformed
into an animal, it
must only have a
metaphoricalrelation
to it, induced by the
child’s illness or
rejection ( 301)
My
teeth have
adapted; in
fact, when I
don’t eat glass
or iron, my jaw
aches like a
young dog’s that
craves to chew a
bone. If we
interpret the
word "like" as a
metaphor, or
propose a
structural
analogy of
relations
(man-iron :
dog-bone), we
understand
nothing of
becoming, The
word ”like" is
one of those
words that
changedrastically
in meaning and
function when
they are used in
connection with
haecceities,
when they are
made into
expressions of
becomings
instead of
signified states
or signifying
relations.
(302-3)
The
conventional
image operates
with a dualism
between true
thinking from
magical
capture, and
foundationalism,
and 'a
republic of
free
spirits...a
legislative
and juridical
organization'(413).
The two are
interrelated
and necessary
to one
another, but
this also
allows for
something
happening
between them,
something
outside the
conventional
model.
We are not
operating with
metaphors here
- the imperium
of truth and a
republic of
spirits are
necessary
components,
and form a
kind of
interiority as
a stratum.
Mumford is cited to
support the view that machinism is to be taken
literally not just metaphorically. (504)
Poetic readings
Some
members of Rhizo15, including Cormier, suggested
we can read the work as a series of stories or as
poetry, a collection of imaginative imagery or
whatever. I have encountered a particular variant
of this approach in some face-to-face discussions
too. These insisted that we confine our collective
readings and discussion to the 'actual text',
usually a selected excerpt with all the problems
of selectivity mentioned already. An
additional problem was also apparent, to me at
least: what was the original text? The
original French? The prepublication versions
(assuming the published version was copy-edited,
which might not be true at all)? The notes
Guattari sent to Deleuze? None of these objections
seemed problematic, and it was almost petty and
pedantic to raise them. Any discussion of context
was also seen as somehow less important. No
general themes found across the work were raised
for discussion. We focused
exclusively on the 'original' excerpt we had
in front of us
Discussion then seemed to turn on issues like
whether we 'liked' or approved any particular
words or sentences in the excerpt. Sometimes this
turned on 'recognizing' similarities between
the words and sentences and those of other
approved readings. Subjective meanings were
attached to those words or sentences -- they
reminded us of things we liked or disliked.
Emotional reactions were accepted or actually
encouraged - the text evidently 'spoke to' the
feelings of some of those present, including
supporting our preferred political positions. We
felt D&G were somehow on the right side,
supporting identity politics or 'progressive'
teaching, even if those words did not actually
appear in the 'actual text'. In practice,
poetic readings rapidly turned into personal
ones with all the problem mentioned earlier
--disagreeing or challenging is seen as personal
attack.However, poetic readings can be topped by
even more poetic or personal ones,leading to
some sort of infinite regress towards the
personal,moving further and further away from
D&G and their work, and focusing more and
more on ours.
This can be engaging and it can build a sense of
community among participants, but it is also
flawed as a technique if personal meanings serve
to close down any quite different meanings on
offer. I have suggested several bits of D&G
that are probably quite unconventional and it is
easy to interpret those as conventional after all,
as in the rhizome meaning only the sort of
underground root we all know and love from our
gardening.
In my view, grasping what D&G might have meant
is more important. I have some more examples here
Instrumental readings
My guess is that most students nudged or forced
into reading D&G will respond with one of
these. Bourdieu and his associates do not
discuss D&G ,but in general they note that
some srtudents admire professorial rhetoric and
even think that they are getting 'the real thing'.
However, they cope,especially in assignments with:
‘manipulation of
the finite bunch of semantic atoms, chains of
mechanically linked words... a discourse of an allusion and
ellipsis... ‘magic
to exorcise error...Prophylactic
relativism [when nothing is ever true or false,
everyone has their own opinions and so on]’ ’ (
Bourdieu et al 1994).
‘ rhetoric of despair... dualization or... resigned
submission to exclusion...‘an impression of familiarity...emulating professorial rhetoric…False generalities…Prudent approximations
of the “not even wrong”... echolalia’... (Sociology Research
Group in Cultural and Education Studies
1980)